Keywords
pharmabiotics
body composition
gut microbiota
postbiotics
inflammation
How to Cite
Abstract
Body composition is a critical determinant of metabolic and functional health, whose regulation depends on the dynamic interaction among energy homeostasis, systemic inflammation, and intestinal barrier integrity. In this context, the gut microbiota constitutes a pathophysiological axis that modulates energy partitioning, nutrient metabolism, insulin sensitivity, and the distribution of fat and lean mass. This review examines the role of nutribiotics and pharmabiotics in the modulation of body composition, integrating physiometabolic mechanisms, inflammatory processes, and energy pathways with current and future clinical implications.
From a functional perspective, nutribiotics promote the biotransformation of dietary substrates, nutrient bioavailability, and the metabolic regulation of macro and micronutrients, thereby contributing to energy homeostasis and the maintenance of muscle tissue. In contrast, pharmabiotics exert biotherapeutic effects through immunometabolic modulation, the production of postbiotics, particularly short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and the strengthening of the intestinal barrier, processes associated with reduced endotoxemia and low-grade inflammation.
The evidence suggests that these interventions may reprogram metabolic pathways related to lipogenesis, insulin signaling, and protein synthesis, thereby favoring modifications in body compartments. However, the heterogeneity of findings limits their mechanistic integration and clinical applicability. Overall, nutribiotics and pharmabiotics are emerging as promising tools for the treatment of obesity, sarcopenia, and metabolic syndrome; nevertheless, their therapeutic incorporation requires robust clinical trials, standardized biomarkers, and regulatory frameworks that ensure safety and reproducibility in clinical practice.
References
Almeida, A., Mitchell, A. L., Boland, M., Forster, S. C., Gloor, G. B., Tarkowska, A., Lawley, T. D. & Finn, R. D. (2019). A new genomic blueprint of the human gut microbiota. Nature, 568(7753), 499-504. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-0965-1
Aron-Wisnewsky, J., Prifti, E., Belda, E., Ichou, F., Kayser, B. D., Dao, M. C., Verger, E. O., Hedjazi, L., Bouillot, J.-L., Chevallier, J.-M., Pons, N., Le Chatelier, E., Levenez, F., Ehrlich, S. D., Doré, J., Zucker, J.-D. & Clément, K. (2019). Major microbiota dysbiosis in severe obesity: Fate after bariatric surgery. Gut, 68(1), 70–82. https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316103
Arora, M. & Baldi, A. (2015). Regulatory categories of probiotics across the globe: A review representing existing and recommended categorization. Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology, 33, S2-S10. https://doi.org/10.4103/0255-0857.150868
Asnicar, F., Berry, S. E., Valdes, A. M., Nguyen, L. H., Piccinno, G., Drew, D. A., Leeming, E., Gibson, R., Le Roy, C., Al Khatib, H., Francis, L., Mazidi, M., Mompeo, O., Valles-Colomer, M., Tett, A., Beghini, F., Dubois, L., Bazzani, D., Maltez Thomas, A., Mirzayi, C., Khleborodova, A., Oh, S., Hine, R., Bonnett, C., Capdevila, J., Danzanvilliers, S., Giordano, F., Geistlinger, L., Waldron, L., Davies, R., Hadjigeorgiou, G., Wolf, J., Ordovás, J. M., Gardner, C., Franks, P. W., Chan, A. T., Huttenhower, C., Spector, T. D. & Segata, N.(2021). Microbiome connections with host metabolism and habitual diet from 1,098 deeply phenotyped individuals. Nature Medicine, 27(2), 321-332. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-01183-8
Augustynowicz, G., Lasocka, M., Szyller, H. P., Dziedziak, M., Mytych, A., Braksator, J. & Pytrus, T. (2025). The role of gut microbiota in the development and treatment of obesity and overweight: A literature review. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 14(14), 4933. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14144933
Bock, P. M., Martins, A. F. & Schaan, B. D. (2024). Understanding how pre- and probiotics affect the gut microbiome and metabolic health. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 326(3), E215–E227. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00054.2024
Campa, F., Toselli, S., Mazzilli, M., Gobbo, L. A. & Coratella, G. (2021). Assessment of body composition in athletes: A narrative review of available methods with special reference to quantitative and qualitative bioimpedance analysis. Nutrients, 13(5), 1620. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13051620
Candelli, M., Franza, L., Pignataro, G., Ojetti, V., Covino, M., Piccioni, A., Gasbarrini, A. & Franceschi, F. (2021). Interaction between Lipopolysaccharide and Gut Microbiota in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(12), 6242. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22126242
Canfora, E. E., Jocken, J. W. & Blaak, E. E. (2015). Short-chain fatty acids in control of body weight and insulin sensitivity. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 11(10), 577-591. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2015.128
Cani, P. D. (2018). Human gut microbiome: hopes, threats and promises. Gut, 67(9), 1716-1725. https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316723
Chambers, E. S., Morrison, D. J. & Frost, G. (2014). Control of appetite and energy intake by SCFA: what are the potential underlying mechanisms? Proceedings of The Nutrition Society, 74(3), 328-336. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0029665114001657
Chambers, E. S., Preston, T., Frost, G. & Morrison, D. J. (2018). Role of gut microbiota-generated short-chain fatty acids in metabolic and cardiovascular health. Current Nutrition Reports, 7(4), 198-206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-018-0248-8
Chambers, E. S., Viardot, A., Psichas, A., Morrison, D. J., Murphy, K. G., Zac-Varghese, S. E. K., MacDougall, K., Preston, T., Tedford, C., Finlayson, G. S., Blundell, J. E., Bell, J. D., Thomas, E. L., Mt-Isa, S., Ashby, D., Gibson, G. R., Kolida, S., Dhillo, W. S., Bloom, S. R., Morley, W., Clegg, S. & Frost, G. (2015). Effects of targeted delivery of propionate to the human colon on appetite regulation, body weight maintenance and adiposity in overweight adults. Gut, 64(11), 1744–1754. https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2014-307913
Chen, L.-K., Woo, J., Assantachai, P., Auyeung, T.-W., Chou, M.-Y., Iijima, K., Jang, H. C., Kang, L., Kim, M., Kim, S., Kojima, T., Kuzuya, M., Lee, J. S. W., Lee, S. Y., Lee, W.-J., Lee, Y., Liang, C.-K., Lim, J.-Y., Lim, W. S., Peng, L.-N., Sugimoto, K., Tanaka, T., Won, C. W., Yamada, M., Zhang, T., Akishita, M. & Arai, H. (2020). Asian Working Group for Sarcopenia: 2019 consensus update on sarcopenia diagnosis and treatment. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 21(3), 300–307.e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2019.12.012
Clemente-Postigo, M., Beltrán-Debón, R., Murri, M., Menacho-Román, M., Tinahones, F. J. & Cardona, F. (2019). Metabolic endotoxemia promotes adipose dysfunction and inflammation in human obesity. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 316(2), E319–E332. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00277.2018
Corbin, K. D., Carnero, E. A., Dirks, B., Igudesman, D., Yi, F., Marcus, A., Davis, T. L., Pratley, R. E., Rittmann, B. E., Krajmalnik-Brown, R. & Smith, S. R. (2023). Host-diet-gut microbiome interactions influence human energy balance: a randomized clinical trial. Nature Communications, 14(1), 3161. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-38778-x
Cristofori, F., Dargenio, V. N., Dargenio, C., Miniello, V. L., Barone, M. & Francavilla, R. (2021). Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Effects of Probiotics in Gut Inflammation: A Door to the Body. Frontiers in Immunology, 12, 578386. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.578386
Cruz-Jentoft, A. J., Bahat, G., Bauer, J., Boirie, Y., Bruyère, O., Cederholm, T., Cooper, C., Landi, F., Rolland, Y., Sayer, A. A., Schneider, S. M., Sieber, C. C., Topinkova, E., Vandewoude, M., Visser, M. & Zamboni, M. (2019). Sarcopenia: Revised European consensus on definition and diagnosis. Age and Ageing, 48(1), 16–31. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afy169
D’Aimmo, M. R., Satti, M. A., Scarafile, D., Modesto, M., Pascarelli, S., Biagini, S. A., Luiselli, D., Mattarelli, P. & Andlid, T. (2023). Folate-producing bifidobacteria: Metabolism, genetics, and relevance. Microbiome Research Reports, 3(1), Article 11. https://doi.org/10.20517/mrr.2023.59
da Silva Pontes, V. C. B., Sales, E. A., Fonseca, R. A., de Oliveira, L. N. X. & do Carmo Gouveia Peluzio, M. (2025). Probiotic supplementation combined with energy-restricted diet decreases body weight and adiposity in overweight and obese women: A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Clinical Nutrition, 44(8), 1894–1903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2025.05.005
Di Vincenzo, F., Del Gaudio, A., Petito, V., Lopetuso, L. R. & Scaldaferri, F. (2024). Gut microbiota, intestinal permeability, and systemic inflammation: A narrative review. Internal and Emergency Medicine, 19(1), 275–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11739-023-03374-w
Fan, Y. & Pedersen, O. (2021). Gut microbiota in human metabolic health and disease. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 19(1), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-020-0433-9
Fuke, N., Yamashita, T., Shimizu, S., Matsumoto, M., Sawada, K., Jung, S., Tokuda, I., Misawa, M., Suzuki, S., Ushida, Y., Mikami, T., Itoh, K. & Suganuma, H. (2023). Association of Plasma Lipopolysaccharide-Binding Protein Concentration with Dietary Factors, Gut Microbiota, and Health Status in the Japanese General Adult Population: A Cross-Sectional Study. Metabolites, 13(2), 250. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13020250
Gallagher, D., Heymsfield, S. B., Heo, M., Jebb, S. A., Murgatroyd, P. R. & Sakamoto, Y. (2000). Healthy percentage body fat ranges: An approach for developing guidelines based on body mass index. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72(3), 694–701. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/72.3.694
Giron, M., Thomas, M., Dardevet, D., Chassard, C. & Savary-Auzeloux, I. (2022). Gut microbes and muscle function: can probiotics make our muscles stronger? Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle, 13(3), 1460–1476. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcsm.12964
Holscher, H. D. (2017). Dietary fiber and prebiotics and the gastrointestinal microbiota. Gut Microbes, 8(2), 172-184. https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2017.1290756
Hong, J., Jia, Y., Pan, S., Jia, L., Li, H., Han, Z., Cai, D. & Zhao, R. (2016). Butyrate alleviates high fat diet-induced obesity through activation of adiponectin-mediated pathway and stimulation of mitochondrial function in the skeletal muscle of mice. Oncotarget, 7(35), 56071-56082. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.11267
Horiuchi, H., Kamikado, K., Aoki, R., Suganuma, N., Nishijima, T., Nakatani, A. & Kimura, I. (2020). Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis GCL2505 modulates host energy metabolism via the short-chain fatty acid receptor GPR43. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 4154. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-60984-6
Jamar, G., Santamarina, A. B., Dias, G. C., Masquio, D. C. L., De Rosso, V. V. & Pisani, L. P. (2018). Relationship between fatty acids intake and Clostridium coccoides in obese individuals with metabolic syndrome. Food Research International, 113, 86-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.07.002
Janssen, I., Heymsfield, S. B., Wang, Z. & Ross, R. (2000). Skeletal muscle mass and distribution in 468 men and women aged 18–88 yr. Journal of Applied Physiology, 89(1), 81–88. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.2000.89.1.81
Kasper, A. M., Langan-Evans, C., Hudson, J. F., Brownlee, T. E., Harper, L. D., Naughton, R. J., Morton, J. P. & Close, G. L. (2021). Come back skinfolds, all is forgiven: A narrative review of the efficacy of common body composition methods in applied sports practice. Nutrients, 13(4), 1075. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13041075
Kaur, H., Kaur, G. & Ali, S. A. (2022). Dairy-based probiotic-fermented functional foods: An update on their health-promoting properties. Fermentation, 8(9), 425. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8090425
Komodromou, I., Andreou, E., Vlahoyiannis, A., Christofidou, M., Felekkis, K., Pieri, M. & Giannaki, C. D. (2024). Exploring the dynamic relationship between the gut microbiome and body composition across the human lifespan: A systematic review. Nutrients, 16(5), 660. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16050660
Kumar, R., Grover, S. & Batish, V. K. (2010). Hypocholesterolaemic effect of dietary inclusion of two putative probiotic bile salt hydrolase-producing Lactobacillus plantarumstrains in Sprague–Dawley rats. British Journal of Nutrition, 105(4), 561-573. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007114510003740
Kumar, M., Nagpal, R., Kumar, R., Hemalatha, R., Verma, V., Kumar, A., Chakraborty, C., Singh, B., Marotta, F., Jain, S. & Yadav, H. (2012). Cholesterol-lowering probiotics as potential biotherapeutics for metabolic diseases. Experimental Diabetes Research, 2012, 902917. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/902917
Kume, T., Acar, S., Tuhan, H., Çatlı, G., Anık, A., Çalan, Ö. G., Böber, E. & Abacı, A. (2016). The Relationship between Serum Zonulin Level and Clinical and Laboratory Parameters of Childhood Obesity. Journal of Clinical Research in Pediatric Endocrinology, 9(1), 31-38. https://doi.org/10.4274/jcrpe.3682
Latif, A., Shehzad, A., Niazi, S., Zahid, A., Ashraf, W., Iqbal, M. W., Rehman, A., Riaz, T., Aadil, R. M., Khan, I. M., Özogul, F., Rocha, J. M., Esatbeyoglu, T. & Korma, S. A. (2023). Probiotics: Mechanism of action, health benefits and their application in food industries. Frontiers in Microbiology, 14, 1216674. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1216674
Le Chatelier, E., Nielsen, T., Qin, J., Prifti, E., Hildebrand, F., Falony, G., Almeida, M., Arumugam, M., Batto, J.-M., Kennedy, S., Leonard, P., Li, J., Burgdorf, K., Grarup, N., Jørgensen, T., Brandslund, I., Nielsen, H. B., Juncker, A. S., Bertalan, M., Levenez, F., Pons, N., Rasmussen, S., Sunagawa, S., Tap, J., Tims, S., Zoetendal, E. G., Brunak, S., Clément, K., Doré, J., Kleerebezem, M., Kristiansen, K., Renault, P., Sicheritz-Ponten, T., de Vos, W. M., Zucker, J.-D., Raes, J., Hansen, T., MetaHIT Consortium, Bork, P., Wang, J., Ehrlich, S. D. & Pedersen, O. (2013). Richness of human gut microbiome correlates with metabolic markers. Nature, 500(7464), 541–546. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12506
Lee, M., Bok, M. K., Son, K., Lee, M., Park, H., Yang, J. & Lim, H. (2024). Bifidobacterium lactis IDCC 4301 (B. lactis Fit™) supplementation effects on body fat, serum triglyceride, and adipokine ratio in obese women: A randomized clinical trial. Food & Function, 15, 8448-8458 https://doi.org/10.1039/d4fo00535j
Lee, M., Hsu, Y., Ho, H., Kuo, Y., Lin, W., Tsai, S., Chen, W., Lin, C. & Huang, C. (2021). Effectiveness of human-origin Lactobacillus plantarum PL-02 in improving muscle mass, exercise performance and anti-fatigue. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 19469. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-98958-x
Lee, M.-M., Jebb, S. A., Oke, J. & Piernas, C. (2020). Reference values for skeletal muscle mass and fat mass measured by bioelectrical impedance in 390,565 UK adults. Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle, 11(2), 487–496. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcsm.12523
Lee, S.-B., Yoo, B., Baeg, C., Yun, J., Ryu, D.-w., Kim, G., Kim, S., Shin, H. & Lee, J. H. (2025). A 12-Week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of Lactobacillus plantarum LMT1-48 on body fat loss. Nutrients, 17(7), 1191. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17071191
Li, T., Rui, Z., Mao, L., Chang, Y., Shao, J., Chen, Y., Han, Q., Sui, X., An, N., Li, H., Feng, H., Jiang, T. & Wang, Q. (2023). Eight weeks of Bifidobacterium lactis BL-99 supplementation improves lipid metabolism and sports performance in college students. Nutrients, 15(21), 4554. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15214554
Liu, Y., Van Bennekom, E. O., Zhang, Y., Abee, T. & Smid, E. J. (2019). Long-chain vitamin K2 production in Lactococcus lactis is influenced by temperature, carbon source, aeration and mode of energy metabolism. Microbial Cell Factories, 18(1), 129. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12934-019-1179-9
Liu, Y., Wang, J. & Wu, C. (2022). Modulation of Gut Microbiota and Immune System by Probiotics, Pre-biotics, and Post-biotics. Frontiers in Nutrition, 8, 634897. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2021.634897
Ma, M., Jiang, T., Wen, Z., Zhang, D. & Xiu, L. (2023). Gender Differences in Relation to Body Composition, Insulin Resistance, and Islet Beta Cell Function in Newly Diagnosed Diabetic or Pre-Diabetic Patients. Diabetes Metabolic Syndrome and Obesity, 16, 723-732. https://doi.org/10.2147/dmso.s397528
Martin-Gallausiaux, C., Marinelli, L., Blottiere, H. H., Larraufie, P. & Lapaque, N. (2020). SCFA: mechanisms and functional importance in the gut. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 80(1), 37-49. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0029665120006916
Messina, C., Albano, D., Gitto, S., Tofanelli, L., Bazzocchi, A., Ulivieri, F. M., Guglielmi, G. & Sconfienza, L. M. (2020). Body composition with dual energy X-ray absorptiometry: From basics to new tools. Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery, 10(8), 1687–1698. https://doi.org/10.21037/qims.2020.03.02
Nikolaidis, P. T., Vancini, R. L., Andrade, M. D. S., De Lira, C. A. B. & Knechtle, B. (2021). Assessment Methods of Body Fat in Recreational Marathon Runners: Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis versus Skinfold Thickness. BioMed Research International, 2021(1), 3717562. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/3717562
Niu, H., Zhou, M., Ji, A., Zogona, D., Wu, T. & Xu, X. (2024). Molecular Mechanism of Pasteurized Akkermansia muciniphila in Alleviating Type 2 Diabetes Symptoms. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 72(23), 13083-13098. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.4c01188
Nogal, A., Valdes, A. M. & Menni, C. (2021). The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between gut microbiota and diet in cardio-metabolic health. Gut Microbes, 13(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2021.1897212
Noormohammadi, M., Ghorbani, Z., Löber, U., Mahdavi-Roshan, M., Bartolomaeus, T. U., Kazemi, A., Shoaibinobarian, N. & Forslund, S. K. (2022). The effect of probiotic and synbiotic supplementation on appetite-regulating hormones and desire to eat: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials. Pharmacological Research, 187, 106614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106614
O’Connell, K. J., Motherway, M. O., O’Callaghan, J., Fitzgerald, G. F., Ross, R. P., Ventura, M., Stanton, C. & Van Sinderen, D. (2013). Metabolism of Four α-Glycosidic Linkage-Containing Oligosaccharides by Bifidobacterium breve UCC2003. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 79(20), 6280-6292. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.01775-13
O’Donoghue, G., Blake, C., Cunningham, C., Lennon, O. & Perrotta, C. (2020). What exercise prescription is optimal to improve body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness in adults living with obesity? A network meta-analysis. Obesity Reviews, 22(2), e13137. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13137
Ofenheimer, A., Breyer-Kohansal, R., Hartl, S., Burghuber, O. C., Krach, F., Schrott, A., Wouters, E. F. M., Franssen, F. M. E. & Breyer, M.-K. (2020). Reference values of body composition parameters and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) by DXA in adults aged 18–81 years—results from the LEAD cohort. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 74, 1181–1191. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-020-0596-5
Office of Dietary Supplements [ODS] - Probiotics. (2023). https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Probiotics-HealthProfessional/.
Ohlsson, B., Orho-Melander, M. & Nilsson, P. M. (2017). Higher levels of serum zonulin may rather be associated with increased risk of obesity and hyperlipidemia, than with gastrointestinal symptoms or disease manifestations. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 18(3), 582. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18030582
Oudat, Q. & Okour, A. (2025). The Role of Probiotics in Modulating Gut Microbiota and Metabolic Health for Weight Management: A Mini Review. Acta Microbiologica Hellenica, 70(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/amh70010005
Pareja, I. C., Vegas-Aguilar, I. M., Lukaski, H., Talluri, A., Bellido-Guerrero, D., Tinahones, F. J. & García-Almeida, J. M. (2022). Overhydration Assessed Using Bioelectrical Impedance Vector Analysis Adversely Affects 90-Day Clinical Outcome among SARS-CoV2 Patients: A New Approach. Nutrients, 14(13), 2726. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14132726
Parlevliet, E. T., De Leeuw Van Weenen, J. E., Romijn, J. A. & Pijl, H. (2010). GLP-1 treatment reduces endogenous insulin resistance via activation of central GLP-1 receptors in mice fed a high-fat diet. AJP Endocrinology and Metabolism, 299(2), E318-E324. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00191.2010
Pawar, R., Dhawal, P., Nabar, B., Barve, S. & Zambare, V. (2022). Mechanisms and applications of probiotics in healthcare industry. En Elsevier eBooks (pp. 225-257). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-90042-3.00002-5
Pegah, A., Abbasi-Oshaghi, E., Khodadadi, I., Mirzaei, F. & Tayebinia, H. (2021). Probiotic and resveratrol normalize GLP-1 levels and oxidative stress in the intestine of diabetic rats. Metabolism Open, 10, 100093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metop.2021.100093
Peng, X., Nie, C., Guan, W., Qiao, L., Lu, L. & Cao, S. (2020). Regulation of Probiotics on Metabolism of Dietary Protein in Intestine. Current Protein and Peptide Science, 21(8), 766-771. https://doi.org/10.2174/1389203720666191111112941
Pessione, E. & Cirrincione, S. (2016). Bioactive molecules released in food by lactic acid bacteria: encrypted peptides and biogenic amines. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 876. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.00876
Portincasa, P., Bonfrate, L., Khalil, M., De Angelis, M., Calabrese, F. M., D’Amato, M., Wang, D. Q. H. & Di Ciaula, A. (2022). Intestinal barrier and permeability in health, obesity and NAFLD. Biomedicines, 10(1), 83. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10010083
Potter, A. W., Chin, G. C., Looney, D. P. & Friedl, K. E. (2024). Defining overweight and obesity by percent body fat instead of body mass index. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 110(4), e1103–e1107. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgae341
Qassab, M. A., Chaarani, N., Hamou, A., Harb, R., Jradi, A., Zeineddine, M., Ghadieh, H. E., Khattar, Z. A., Azar, S., Kanaan, A. & Harb, F. (2026). The Gut Microbiota–Insulin Resistance Axis: Mechanisms, Clinical Implications, and Therapeutic Potential. FASEB BioAdvances, 8(1), e70080. https://doi.org/10.1096/fba.2025-00218
Rabbani, S., El-Tanani, M., Janić, M., Janež, A., Tanani, Y., Hajeer, E., Matalka, M., Rizzo, M. & Kumar, R. (2025). Modulating Metabolic Health and Physiological Functions: Advances in Dietary Interventions Targeting Gut Microbiota. Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management, Volume 21, 1701-1733. https://doi.org/10.2147/tcrm.s540144
Ranjha, M. M. A. N., Shafique, B., Batool, M., Kowalczewski, P. Ł., Shehzad, Q., Usman, M., Manzoor, M. F., Zahra, S. M., Yaqub, S. & Aadil, R. M. (2021). Nutritional and health potential of probiotics: A review. Applied Sciences (Switzerland), 11(23), 11204. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112311204
Rasaei, N., Heidari, M., Esmaeili, F., Khosravi, S., Baeeri, M., Tabatabaei-Malazy, O. & Emamgholipour, S. (2024). The effects of prebiotic, probiotic or synbiotic supplementation on overweight/obesity indicators: an umbrella review of the trials’ meta-analyses. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 15, 1277921. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2024.1277921
Ridaura, V. K., Faith, J. J., Rey, F. E., Cheng, J., Duncan, A. E., Kau, A. L., Griffin, N. W., Lombard, V., Henrissat, B., Bain, J. R., Muehlbauer, M. J., Ilkayeva, O., Semenkovich, C. F., Funai, K., Hayashi, D. K., Lyle, B. J., Martini, M. C., Ursell, L. K., Clemente, J. C., Van Treuren, W., Walters, W. A., Knight, R., Newgard, C. B., Heath, A. C. & Gordon, J. I. (2013). Gut microbiota from twins discordant for obesity modulate metabolism in mice. Science, 341(6150), 1241214. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1241214
Riedel, S., Pheiffer, C., Johnson, R., Louw, J. & Muller, C. J. F. (2022). Intestinal Barrier Function and Immune Homeostasis Are Missing Links in Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes Development. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 12, 833544. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2021.833544
Saad, M. J. A., Santos, A. & Prada, P. O. (2016). Linking Gut Microbiota and Inflammation to Obesity and Insulin Resistance. Physiology, 31(4), 283-293. https://doi.org/10.1152/physiol.00041.2015
Saadati, S., Naseri, K., Asbaghi, O., Yousefi, M., Golalipour, E. & de Courten, B. (2024). Beneficial effects of the probiotics and synbiotics supplementation on anthropometric indices and body composition in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Obesity Reviews, 25(3), e13667. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13667
Santanasto, A. J., Goodpaster, B. H., Kritchevsky, S. B., Miljkovic, I., Satterfield, S., Schwartz, A. V., Cummings, S. R., Boudreau, R. M., Harris, T. B. & Newman, A. B. (2016). Body Composition Remodeling and Mortality: The Health Aging and Body Composition Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series A, 72 (4), 513-519. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glw163
Sergeev, I. N., Aljutaily, T., Walton, G. & Huarte, E. (2020). Effects of Synbiotic Supplement on Human Gut Microbiota, Body Composition and Weight Loss in Obesity. Nutrients, 12(1), 222. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12010222
Shin, S. M., Park, J.-S., Kim, S. B., Cho, Y. H., Seo, H. & Lee, H. S. (2024). A 12-Week, single-centre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-design clinical trial for the evaluation of the efficacy and safety of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum SKO-001 in reducing body fat. Nutrients, 16(8), 1137. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16081137
Shou, J., Chen, P. & Xiao, W. (2020). Mechanism of increased risk of insulin resistance in aging skeletal muscle. Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome, 12(1), 14 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13098-020-0523-x
Simon, M.-C., Sina, C., Ferrario, P. G. & Daniel, H. (2023). Gut microbiome analysis for personalized nutrition: The state of science. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 67(1), 2200476. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.202200476
Stenman, L. K., Lehtinen, M. J., Meland, N., Christensen, J. E., Yeung, N., Saarinen, M. T., Courtney, M., Burcelin, R., Lähdeaho, M., Linros, J., Apter, D., Scheinin, M., Smerud, H. K., Rissanen, A. & Lahtinen, S. (2016). Probiotic with or Without Fiber Controls Body Fat Mass, Associated with Serum Zonulin, in Overweight and Obese Adults—Randomized Controlled Trial. EBioMedicine, 13, 190-200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2016.10.036
Sung, H. K., Youn, S. J., Choi, Y., Eun, S. W. & Shin, S. M. (2023). Body fat reduction effect of Bifidobacterium breve B-3: A randomized, double-blind, placebo comparative clinical trial. Nutrients, 15(1), 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15010028
Tamés, H., Cuesta, I., Ruiz, L. & Ruas-Madiedo, P. (2025). Biofortification of fermented foods with riboflavin-overproducing Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis strains. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 436, 111210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2025.111210
Thomas, M. K., Nikooienejad, A., Bray, R., Cui, X., Wilson, J., Duffin, K., Milicevic, Z., Haupt, A. & Robins, D. A. (2020). Dual GIP and GLP-1 Receptor Agonist Tirzepatide Improves Beta-cell Function and Insulin Sensitivity in Type 2 Diabetes. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 106(2), 388-396. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgaa863
Tilg, H., Zmora, N., Adolph, T. E. & Elinav, E. (2020). The intestinal microbiota fuelling metabolic inflammation. Nature Reviews Immunology, 20(1), 40–54. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-019-0198-4
Toda, K., Yamauchi, Y., Tanaka, A., Kuhara, T., Odamaki, T., Yoshimoto, S. & Xiao, J. Z. (2020). Heat-killed bifidobacterium breve B-3 enhances muscle functions: Possible involvement of increases in muscle mass and mitochondrial biogenesis. Nutrients, 12(1), 2019. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12010219
Tomooka, S., Oishi, E., Asada, M., Sakata, S., Hata, J., Chen, S., Honda, T., Suzuki, K., Watanabe, H., Murayama, N., Wada, N., Kitazono, T. & Ninomiya, T. (2022). Serum Lipopolysaccharide-binding Protein Levels and the Incidence of Metabolic Syndrome in a General Japanese Population: the Hisayama Study. Journal of Epidemiology, 34(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.2188/jea.je20220232
Vernocchi, P., Del Chierico, F. & Putignani, L. (2020). Gut Microbiota Metabolism and Interaction with Food Components. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(10), 3688. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21103688
Vetrani, C., Di Nisio, A., Paschou, S. A., Barrea, L., Muscogiuri, G., Graziadio, C., Savastano, S., Colao, A. & on behalf of the OPERA Group. (2022). From gut microbiota through low-grade inflammation to obesity: Key players and potential targets. Nutrients, 14(10), 2103. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14102103
Wang, J. & Ji, H. (2018). Influence of Probiotics on Dietary Protein Digestion and Utilization in the Gastrointestinal Tract. Current Protein and Peptide Science, 20(2), 125-131. https://doi.org/10.2174/1389203719666180517100339
Wang, K., Lai, W., Min, T., Wei, J., Bai, Y., Cao, H., Guo, J. & Su, Z. (2024). The Effect of Enteric-Derived Lipopolysaccharides on Obesity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(8), 4305. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25084305
Wang, Y., Dilidaxi, D., Wu, Y., Sailike, J., Sun, X. & Nabi, X. hua. (2020). Composite probiotics alleviate type 2 diabetes by regulating intestinal microbiota and inducing GLP-1 secretion in db/db mice. Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy, 125, 109914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2020.109914
Wu, W., Kaicen, W., Bian, X., Yang, L., Ding, S., Li, Y., Li, S., Zhuge, A. & Li, L. (2023). Akkermansia muciniphila alleviates high-fat-diet-related metabolic-associated fatty liver disease by modulating gut microbiota and bile acids. Microbial Biotechnology, 16(10), 1924-1939. https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.14293
Yadav, R., Puniya, A. K. & Shukla, P. (2016). Probiotic properties of Lactobacillus plantarum RYPR1 from an indigenous fermented beverage Raabadi. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 1683. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.01683
Yan, S., Chen, L., Li, N., Wei, X., Wang, J., Dong, W., Wang, Y., Shi, J., Ding, X. & Peng, Y. (2024). Effect of Akkermansia muciniphila on pancreatic islet β-cell function in rats with prediabetes mellitus induced by a high-fat diet. Bioresources And Bioprocessing, 11(1), 51 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-024-00766-4
Yang, M., Zheng, J., Zong, X., Yang, X., Zhang, Y., Man, C. & Jiang, Y. (2021). Preventive Effect and Molecular Mechanism of Lactobacillus rhamnosus JL1 on Food-Borne Obesity in Mice. Nutrients, 13(11), 3989. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13113989
Yeh, W., Hsu, Y., Ho, C., Ho, H., Kuo, Y., Tsai, S., Huang, C. & Lee, M. (2022). Lactobacillus plantarum PL-02 Supplementation Combined with Resistance Training Improved Muscle Mass, Force, and Exercise Performance in Mice. Frontiers in Nutrition, 9, 896503. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.896503
Zhang, S., Zhang, Y., Li, J., Wang, X., Zhang, M., Du, M., Jiang, W. & Li, C. (2024). Butyrate and Propionate are Negatively Correlated with Obesity and Glucose Levels in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity. Diabetes Metabolic Syndrome and Obesity, Volume 17, 1533-1541. https://doi.org/10.2147/dmso.s434499
Zhao, Y., Liu, J., Hao, W., Zhu, H., Liang, N., He, Z., Ying, K., Ma, K. Y. & Chen, Z. (2017). Structure-Specific Effects of Short-Chain Fatty Acids on Plasma Cholesterol Concentration in Male Syrian Hamsters. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 65(50), 10984-10992. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.7b04666
TIP Magazine Specialized in Chemical-Biological Sciences, distributed under Creative Commons License: Attribution + Noncommercial + NoDerivatives 4.0 International.